마산고등영어과외선생님 마산고등수학과외교사마산중등영어과외수업 마산중등수학과외학생관리마산초등영어전문과외수업 마산초등수학전문과외교사마산고등영어과외선생님 마산고등수학전문과외지도 Marshall ensured that Federalist ideology ⓜⓢretained an important presence in the judiciary. In the case of Marbury v. Madison, Marshall simultaneously ruled that Madison had unjustly refused to deliver federal commissions to individuals who had been appointed to federal positions by President Adams but who had not yet taken office, but that the Supreme Court did not have jurisdiction over the case. Most importantly, Marshall's opinion established the principle of judicial review.[132] The 1803 Louisiana Purchase totaled 827,987 square miles (2,144,480 square kilometers), ⓜⓢdoubling the size of the United States. By the time Jefferson took office, Americans had settled as far west as the Mississippi River, though vast pockets of American land remained vacant or inhabited only by Native Americans. Jefferson believed that western expansion played an important role in furthering his vision of a republic of yeoman farmers, and he hoped to acquire the Spanish territory of ⓜⓢLouisiana, which was located to the west of the Mississippi River.[133] Early in ⓜⓢJefferson's presidency, the administration learned that Spain planned to retrocede the Louisiana to France, raising fears of French encroachment on U.S. territory.[134] In 1802, Jefferson and Madison dispatched James Monroe to France to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans, which controlled access to the Mississippi River and thus was immensely important to the farmers of the American frontier. Rather than selling merely New Orleans, Napoleon's government, having already given up on plans to establish a new French empire in ⓜⓢthe Americas, offered to sell the entire Territory of Louisiana. Despite lacking explicit authorization from Jefferson, Monroe and ambassador Robert R. Livingston negotiated the Louisiana Purchase, in which France sold over 800,000 square miles (2,100,000 square kilometers) of land in exchange for $15 million.[135] Despite the time-sensitive nature of negotiations with the French, Jefferson was concerned ⓜⓢabout the constitutionality of the Louisiana Purchase, and he privately favored ⓜⓢintroducing a constitutional amendment explicitly authorizing Congress to acquire new territories. Madison convinced Jefferson to refrain from proposing the amendment, and the administration ultimately submitted the Louisiana Purchase without an accompanying constitutional amendment.[136] Unlike Jefferson, Madison was not seriously concerned with the Louisiana Purchase's constitutionality. He believed that the circumstances did not warrant a strict interpretation of the Constitution because the expansion was in the ⓜⓢcountry's best interest.[137] The Senate quickly ratified the treaty providing for the purchase, and the House, with equal alacrity, passed enabling legislation.[138] The Jefferson administration argued that the purchase had included the Spanish territory of West Florida, but France and Spain both held that West Florida was not included in the purchase.[139] Monroe attempted to purchase clear title to West Florida ⓜⓢ and East Florida from Spain, but the Spanish, outraged by Jefferson's claims to West ⓜⓢ Florida, refused to negotiate.[140] Early in his tenure, Jefferson was able to maintain cordial relations with both France and Britain, but relations with Britain deteriorated after 1805.[141] The British ended their policy of tolerance towards American shipping and began seizing American goods headed for French ports.[142] They also impressed American sailors, some of whom had originally defected from the British navy, and some of whom had never been British subjects.[143] In response to the attacks, Congress passed ⓜⓢ the Non-importation Act, which restricted many, but not all, British imports.[142] Tensions with Britain heightened due to the Chesapeake–Leopard affair, a June 1807 naval confrontation between American and British naval forces, while the French also began attacking American shipping.[144] Madison believed that economic pressure could force the British to end attacks on American shipping, and he and ⓜⓢJefferson convinced Congress to pass the Embargo Act of 1807, which totally
